The universe is a living
system or organism. We are like microorganisms observed under the microscopes.
From the tiny word of the atom to the vastness of the universe, there is
continuity through the integrated levels of organization including all living
organisms in between. Physics and chemistry of the atoms compose the biology of
the universe. The organization of life is key to the organization of physical
universe. In fact, the life is the biological universe and the rest is the physical
universe. Evolution of life is progressing through different levels of
dimensions and the universe is the highest dimension of life. We are all small
and ephemeral part of greater and eternal living entity, the universe. I am
hereby giving the world’s scientific community a tool in the form of the following
equation to investigate this fact which the world would come to know and accept
later.
The
present study implies that the biological universe and the physical universe
are intimately correlated, a fact which has always been overlooked. The
present investigation points out a definite correlation between the
organizational plan of DNA molecule and cell during organic evolution and the
organizational plan of our Solar System during inorganic evolution. The
following equation showing the correlation between the genetic code and the
apparent motion of the Sun, due to Earth’s revolution around the Sun, has been
derived by me during the present investigation.
.
64 –
As
339
-----------------
= ---------------
20
107.65
Where, 64
= Number of codons
20 = Number of amino acids
As =
Astromolecular constant i.e. 1.013, derived during the present
Investigation
339 = Number of disks of Sun to measure its apparent path along the
ecliptic in
Celestial sphere between the two equinoxes
.
107.65 = Average distance of the Sun in terms of its own diameter
All living organisms
on the earth share the same 64 codons and 20 amino acids.
The above equation correlates
the molecular data with the astronomical data implying a common organizational
plan of the DNA molecule and our Solar System probably due to the influence of
a common governing force i.e. Sun’s large gravitational force. The genetic
code made up of DNA, acts as an intracellular computer for the structure and
physiology of the cell and governs the embryonic development leading to
the formation of the body plan of the organisms. The data of the present
investigation clearly show that the microscopical numbers i.e. the number of
codons of the genetic code, number of amino acids which are common to all
organisms, are functions of the astronomical numbers as shown in the equation derived.
The genetic code works as an intracellular computer which governs the
organization of the cell and nucleus and the phylogenetic evolution of
living organisms. This intimate correlation found between the
biological and physical universe during the present investigation has led me
to hypothesize that the physical universe is a living system or organism.
I propose that knowing the biology better will solve the
mysteries of the universe better.
Although new
information on solar systems, galaxies, birth and death of stars are coming in,
there are many long-standing mysteries enveloping the universe. The advent of
new generation of astronomical instruments opens new windows for the
astronomers and may call for major revisions in the standard view of cosmology.
My proposition is that an extensive and well co-ordinated work between
different types of microscopes and telescopes could be able to reveal more
mysteries enveloping the microcosm and macrocosm and thus bridging further the
gaps between the disciplines like biology, chemistry, physics and astronomy. (Excerpt
from my published research paper" EVOLUTION AND RELATION OF MICROCOSM
AND MACROCOSM" with edition).
Full Paper:
EVOLUTION AND RELATION
OF MICROCOSM AND MACROCOSM
ARBIND KUMAR
P.G. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
PATNA UNIVERSITY
PATNA
ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE :
DR. ARBIND KUMAR
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
P.G. DEPARTMENT OF
ZOOLOGY
PATNA UNIVERSITY
SCIENCE COLLEGE CAMPUS
PATNA – 800005
Email – arbindpu@gmail.com
Ph – 2302002(R),
2670970 (O)
9572288939(Mb)
Keywords : Evolution,
Life, cell, Universe, DNA, Gravitation, Microscopes,
Telescopes,Astronomy,Einstein,Theory of Relativity
ABSTRACT
A lot of work has been done in the domain of origin, evolution and structure of
universe and life on the earth. However, little has been done to find a
relationship between the microscopic organization of living organisms and
astronomical organization. The present investigation points out a definite
correlation between the organizational plan of DNA molecule and cell during
organic evolution and the organizational plan of our Solar System during
inorganic evolution. The practical applicability of astronomy is often
questioned, but the present findings indicate that it has got a direct bearing
on the modern humans spearheading the biological evolution which still
continues.
INTRODUCTION
The problem of origin, evolution and structure of the universe and life on the
Earth has been an intriguing and exciting questions for the scientists.
Nicolaus Copernicus, a star-struck physician, was the first who gave the modern
concept of our Solar System followed by Kepler, and Galileo who made a great contribution
to astronomy by construction of the telescope. Thereafter a lot has been done
in the domain of the origin and structure of the Solar System. Today
astronomers with the help of both ground-based and space observatories have
gone much beyond our Solar System to explore the origin, evolution and
structural organization of the universe, galaxies and cluster of galaxies –
their all objects including mysterious supermassive black holes, the giant
globular cluster of stars, every kind of star, regions of star formation,
exploding novae or supernovae and their remnants, active galactic nuclei
(AGNs), BL Lacerate (BL Lacs) and quasi-stellar objects (QSOs), as well as
galaxy-spaning halo of hot gas containing the mass of a trillion Suns1-11.
Neutrino astronomy is expected to extract more detailed information from some
of these celestial objects and make astronomers to see directly into the cores
of stars and supernovae. At present there are three principal theories
regarding the origin, evolution and structure of the expanding universe – 1.
The big-bang explosion, 2. The expansion - contraction
and 3. The steady-state theories6, 10, 12 – 14.
The lower limit set for the age of the Galaxy is 12 x 109 years
with an uncertainty of the order of 2-3 x 109 years and
the estimated age of the Solar System and so of the Earth is 5 – 4 x 109 years 6,
11, 15. The first indication of primitive life on the Earth occurred just
over 3.5 to 3.0x109 years ago6, 16, 17. Oparin18 in
his book ‘The origin of Life’ proposed that in prebiotic times spontaneous
generation of life would be less difficult if the ocean contained a large
amount of complex organic components similar to those present in living
organisms. These compounds would serve both as structural components and as the
energy source for the first organisms. He also proposed that the Earth had a
reducing atmosphere of hydrogen, ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4),
and water in its early stages, and that organic compounds might be formed under
these conditions. Urey19 based his arguments for the reducing
atmosphere on the thermodynamic properties of gases in a cosmic dust cloud from
which the Solar System was formed. He proposed that organic compounds might be
synthesized by ultraviolet radiation and by electrical discharges (lightening)
in the reducing atmosphere. Stanley Miller20 performed
fundamental experiments using electrical discharges in a flask into which water
vapour, H2, CH4 and NH3 had been
injected and found that amino acids had formed strongly supporting the above
theories. Since then several other steps in the synthesis of organic molecules
have been carried out and experiments simulating prebiotic conditions have
yielded sugars, fatty acids, nucleic acid bases21 – 23. In
continuation of these results, a lot of work on chemical evolution and the
origin of life on the Earth has been done so far16, 24, 25. It is
speculated that chemical evolution was probably followed by another biological
evolution, in which proteins were formed by polymerization of amino acids, and
aggregates appeared in the water medium alongwith other organic compounds,
called coacervates26. Only after the origin of the genetic code,
determined by the sequence of bases in nucleic acids – the first
self-reproducing molecule, self-perpetuating cells could have arisen. Thus
organization of life first took place at the molecular level e.g. proteins,
nucleic acids (Deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA and Ribonucleic acid, RNA), then
after evolution of first cell on the Earth i.e. prokaryotic cells which did not
have distinct organization of nucleus, organization of nucleus took place in
eukaryotic cells which evolved from prokaryotic cells27-30. After
then, from the lower forms of unicellular living organisms evolved all the
higher forms of complex multicellular living organisms spearheaded by Modern
humans31, 32. It is now well established fact that the genetic code
has played a key role throughout the evolutionary process17,33-35and
acted as an intracellular computer in the organization of the cell and nucleus30,
36.
There are approximately two million different species of
organisms known today, at the cellular and molecular levels there is a unique
master plan of organization common to all. All organisms have the cells as
their basic structural and functional unit, all have essentially the same
genetic code made of DNA. There’s also a definite organizational plan in our
Solar System and Galaxy, other galaxies and cluster of galaxies, AGNs, BL Lacs
and QSOs of the expanding universe as revealed by astrophysical research in
every band of the electromagnetic spectrum1 – 11. However, little
has been done to investigate a correlation between the microscopic organization
of living organism and the astronomical organization. The present investigation
suggests a close relationship between the organization of DNA molecule and the
cell during organic evolution and the organization of our Solar System during
inorganic evolution. The astronomical data have been compared and correlated
with the data of DNA molecule and the experimental data obtained through
microscopic study of the cells of some organs viz. liver, pancreas, testis and
ovary of the guinea pig. The light scanning and transmission electron microscopical
studies37, 38 have shown that cells of a particular type are
organized together to form a tissue of specialized function and different
tissues are organized to form organs to perform a particular function in an
organism.
DNA AND ASTRONOMY :
The following equation showing the correlation between the
genetic code and the apparent motion of the Sun due to Earth’s revolution
around the Sun, has been derived by me during the present investigation.
64 –
As
339
-----------------
= ---------------
20
107.65
Where, 64 = Number of codons
20 = Number of amino acids
As =
Astromolecular constant
339 = Number of disks of Sun to measure its apparent path along the
ecliptic in celestial
sphere between two equinoxes
107.65 =
Average distance of the Sun in terms of its own diameter
In 1953, Watson and Crick39 proposed a
model of DNA structure which is composed of two helical polynucleotide chains
that form a double helix around the same central axis. The two base pairs
adenine-thymine (A – T) and Cytosine-Guanine (C – G) are stacked inside the
helix in a plane perpendicular to the helical axis. Two hydrogen bonds are
formed between A and T, and three are formed between C and G. the average
length of five hydrogen bonds, two base pairs and backbone to backbone distance
in double helix are shown in Table-1.
DNA is the genetic material of cells, carrying information
in coded form from cell to cell and from parent to offspring. The information
contained in DNA is based on 4 nucleotides which is made of 4 bases (A, T, G,
C). Cells can translate this four-letter code into 20 amino acids. The codons
consist of 3 nucleotides that specify single amino acid. The genetic code
consists of 43 = 64 codons. All living organisms
share the same 64 codons and 20 amino acids.
We have,
64
------ =
3.2
(1)
20
From DNA parameters of table – 1, we derive the following
‘DNA ratios’
a
parameters
----- =
0.5475
(2)
c
b
parameters
----- = 0.2667
(3)
a
The average of equation (2) and (3) is equal to 0.4071, and we
will call it average ‘DNA ratio’.
Now let us consider the parameters of the planetary model of our Solar System
presented in table – 2. The average of r/R ratios of five planets, Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn is equal to 0.4126, and we will call it average
‘r/R ratio’. Thus :
Average
r/R ratio
-------------------------------
= 1.013
(4)
Average DNA ratio
which is a constant and it will be called as astromolecular
constant (as). We know that, average distance of the Moon from the Earth is
3.84 x 1010 cm and diameter of the Moon is 3.52 x 108 cm,
so the average distance (EM) that the Moon is in terms of its own diameter from
the Earth is equal to 109.09. Average distance of the Earth from the Sun is
1.4964 x 1013 cm and diameter of the Sun is 1.39 x 1011 cm.
Hence, the average distance (ES) that the Sun is in terms of its own diameter
from the Earth is equal to 107.65. Now we have,
EM
-------- =
1.013
(5)
ES
This value is approximately the same as astromolecular constant
in equation (4), and is responsible for the rare cosmological events presented
by the sight of Total Solar Eclipses in which the apparent size of the
Moon as seen from the Earth almost equals the apparent size of the Sun. we get
the following formula from equation (4) and (5),
Average r/R ratio
EM
--------------------------------
= ----- (6)
Average DNA
ratio
ES
It is interesting to note that AG/CT
ratio in all DNAs, regardless of the species40 is also in
approximation to astromolecular constant.
After plugging the astromolecular constant in the equation (1)
in the following way, the equation becomes :
64 – as
-------------
= 3.149 ≈ π (7)
20
Where,
64 is the number of codons in the genetic code and 20 is the number of amino
acids which are the same for all living organisms; as =
Astromolecular constant.
It is
also known that the astronomical number 339 is the number of disks of the Sun
to measure its apparent path along the ecliptic during the vernal and autumnal
equinoxes in the celestial sphere. Dividing this number with 107.65 (i.e. ES,
the average distance that the Sun is in terms of its own diameter from the
Earth), we have :
339
-------------
=
3.149 (8)
107.65
From
equation (7) and (8) we get the relation :
64 –
as
339
---------------
=
------------ (9)
20
107.65
Thus,
the formulae (6), (7) and (9) correlates the molecular data with the
astronomical data implying a common organizational plan of the DNA molecule and
our Solar System probably due to the influence of a common governing force i.e.
Sun’s large gravitational force. The Sun keeps the planets in their orbits by
its gravitational attraction. Gravitation, a general property of all matter,
makes the Earth revolve around the Sun and the Moon around the Earth. Isaac
Newton first of all had the idea of gravity as a universal force. In the frame
of Einstein’s general theory of relativity, the properties of space, time and
gravitation are merged into one harmonious and elegant picture. Albert Einstein
propounded the idea of gravitational curvature of the four-dimensional
space-time continuum41 – 43. The world-line of orbital motion of the
Earth is a helix and goedesic41. It is tempting to speculate that
there could be a correlation between the helical world-line and the helical structure
of the polynucleotide chains of the DNA molecule which is the first
self-reproducing molecule to have formed in the beginning of the biological
evolution.
We
know that the diurnal rhythms (circadian rhythms) and annual rhythms observed
in the activities, distribution and physiology of organisms are related to the
time of day (24 hour basis) and season of the year. In some cases the rhythm is
lunar. However, the physiological basis of this time sense of the organisms is
unknown. The genetic code made up of DNA, acts as an intracellular computer for
the structure and physiology of the cell30, 36 and governs the
embryonic development leading to the formation of the body plan of the
organisms. The relation of genetic code with the annual apparent motion of the
Sun (equation 9) due to the movement of the Earth round the Sun might be one of
the factors for the annual rhythms. The apparent diurnal revolution of the Sun
due to the Earth’s rotation might be one of the reasons of diurnal rhythms. The
large gravitational force exerted by the Sun not only holds the members of the
Solar System together but also causes them to take part in its true movement,
i.e. a movement relative to the adjacent fixed stars and a revolution (cosmic
year) about the center of the Galactic System which itself is moving in the
space. It is interesting to propose that cosmic year might cause
biological rhythms on the Earth.
CELL
AND ASTRONOMY :
Materials
and Methods: Six normal healthy guinea pigs
were anaesthetized with ether and sacrificed for the study of cells from organs
viz. liver, pancreas, testis and ovary. The abdominal cavity was opened and
above organs were dissected out and washed briefly in normal physiological
saline solution. The organs were cut into small pieces and fixed immediately in
carnoy fixative for 3 hours. After fixation, the specimens were washed well,
dehydrated through a graded series of alcohol, cleared in xylene and embedded
in paraffin Wax (E.Merk (India) Ltd., Bombay, m.p. 58oC). Sections
were cut at 6 µm thickness and stained with
haematoxylin and papanicolaou for observation under optical microscope.
The
hepatic cells (liver), pancreatic acinar cells, primary spermatocytes (testis)
and Oocytes (ovary) were studied and micrometric measurements done. The
measurements of the size of the cells and their nuclei were made at random
using ocular and stage micrometer. The shortest and longest diameters of each
cell and nucleus were measured and the mean of two diameters was taken. Total
100 cells and nuclei were measured for each type of cells except the mature
oocytes where 5 cells and nuclei were measured because mature oocytes are found
less in number. The ratio of the size of nucleus and cell (N/C) was taken out
for 100 cells and nuclei measured and their mean and standard deviation
calculated.
Results: The experimental data are presented in table-3. The
N/C ratios of each type of the cells studied are in the range of
r/R ratios of exterior planets i.e. Mars and Jupiter and interior planets
i.e. Venus and Mercury (Table-2). The DNA ratios of equation (2) and (3) are
also in the same range of r/R ratios of these planets. The previous
records44, 45 also show that in normal rabbits the N/C
ratio of Leydig cell is 0.59 and of hepatic cell from different zones of the
lobule is about 0.43, which are also in the same range of r/R
ratios of Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. The possible effect of the Sun’s
gravity on the organization of DNA molecule, which in turn governs the
organization of the cell and nucleus30,36 , may be the reason
of DNA ratios and N/C ratios of the cells being in the range
of r/R ratios of Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. This
reconciliation between DNA ratios, N/C ratios and r/R
ratios may also be correlated to the fact that the density of Mercury, Venus
and Mars are higher and they are nearer to the Earth in comparison to the other
planets and that gravitating mass of Jupiter is very high in comparison to other
planets.
It is
clear from the table – 3 that in oocytes the size of cell and nucleus increases
proportionately keeping the N/C ratio in the specified range
of r/R ratios of these planets. In tetraploid hepatocytes too the
size of the cell and nucleus increases so far as to maintain the
N/C ratio in the specified range. Standard deviations of the size of
hepatocytes and nuclei are higher because both diploid and tetraploid cells
were included in the micrometric measurement.
DISCUSSION – Microcosm
and Macrocosm
The
data of the present investigation clearly show that the microscopical numbers
i.e. the number of codons of the genetic code, number of amino acids and the
average DNA ratio, which are common to all organisms, are functions of the
astronomical numbers as shown in equation (6), (7) and (9). The study also
implies a close relationship between the organizational plan of DNA molecule,
cell and nucleus during organic evolution and the organizational plan of
different planets in the Solar System during inorganic evolution (Table 1, 2
and 3). The possibility of universal gravity ruling the organizational plan of
DNA molecule, cell and nucleus at least in the beginning of biological
evolution cannot be ruled out. Newton’s law of gravitation is fundamental in
celestial mechanics. Gravity rules the whole universe. It holds together the four
hundred billion stars of our Milky Way; it makes the Earth revolve around the
Sun and the Moon around the Earth. It includes double stars to revolve about
each other and holds together star clusters and galaxies. Hoyle – Fowler11 work
of 1963 on supermassive star has opened up a new field in astrophysics, called
relativistic astrophysics where Newtonian gravity is replaced by Einstein’s
general theory of relativity. Einstein has also suggested that gravitational
fields play an essential role in the elementary formations which go to make up
the atom41. Different combinations of the same atoms, obeying the
same laws, compose both the inanimate and the living worlds. The evidence has
been presented that virtually all electrons and nuclei of the atoms that are or
have been part of living matter on the Earth come from almost all stars in our
and nearby galaxies and even from all other galaxies in the universe46.
Many scientists believing on underlying order in nature, search for an
ultimate, unifying principle in the physical sciences as well as in biological
sciences47. The present communication points out a unifying entity
between the biological science and astronomical / astrophysical science.
It
has been reported that the presence of organic, prebiotic molecules on the
composite grain clumps in the interstellar medium and in carbonaceous
chondrites could have led to the start and dispersal of biological activity on
the Earth and elsewhere in the Galaxy48. Whether life originated on
the Earth or anywhere in the vast expanses of interstellar space, as the
evidence has been put forward48, 49, it is probable that the
gravitational force, which played a key role in the organization of our Solar
System and Galaxy and other galaxies of the universe, would also have played a
significant role in the organization of the first self-reproducing molecule,
DNA and the cell at least in the early stages of the biological evolution. The
self-organization of self-reproducing polynucleotide chains of the nucleic acid50 in
the beginning of biological evolution on the Earth might be governed by the
force of gravity resulting in the syntheses of the genetic code (and life).
Whether the recent genetic code represents the informational message
transmitted by living systems of the previous cycle of universe or it
could originate on the Earth within the present cycle of the universe51,
in both cases the gravitation would be the common influencing factor on the
genetic code. The astrophysical entities like ultraviolet rays, gamma rays,
X-rays, visible light, electrical discharges (lightening) and others have been
reported to have played a significant role in the chemical evolution and the
origin of life16, 21 – 23. A close relationship between the chemical
evolution of life and the evolution of Earth’s crust has been reported52.
It
seems that the influence of gravitational force on the development of genetic
code was one of the significant steps in the beginning of biological evolution.
The genetic programmed has played a significant role throughout the
evolutionary process which has got practical uses in our everyday life17,
33 – 35. The genetic code works as an intracellular computer36 which
governs the organization of the cell and nucleus30 and the
phylogenetic evolution53. The embryonic development proceeds in a
particular order and according to a precise schedule set by the genetic
programme which determines when and where lines of differentiated cells will
emerge, when and where different proteins will be made and in what amounts. Both
the quality and quantity of different proteins vary in time and space during
embryonic development. And in the adult, various types of cells and tissues
contain different collections of molecular types in accordance with their
specialized functions. Hence, the genetic programmed controls the formation of
the body plan. If intelligent life exists elsewhere in the cosmos54,
it is likely that the basic structural organization of genetic code and cell
system would be the same as on the Earth because of the universal gravity
acting in the space and time. But its form and size might differ to various
degrees depending upon the presence of different environments throughout the
evolutionary process. So, the extraterrestrial life might look like us with
different degrees of deviation in the body plan depending upon which corner of
the cosmos they belong. The large size of the dinosaurs, a group of reptiles
that were dominant fauna during the Jurassic period about 150 million years
ago, might also have been influenced by the specific environment present on the
Earth. The marked changes in the environment during the end of Mesozoic era
about 70 million years ago are considered one of the factors for extinction of
these animals.
Thus,
we see that the present investigation suggests a close correlation between the
microscopical world and the astronomical world (equations (6), (7), (9),
tables1, 2, 3). Inorganic evolution and organic evolution may be seen to
represent nothing but two different facets of the same cosmological phenomenon
called gravitation. The present study points out the possible continuity
through the integrated levels of organization from microcosm to macrocosm, and
the work in this domain is in progress which will be communicated in the
forthcoming paper. The present findings may open a new vistas in our
understanding of the origin, evolution and structural organization of the
universe1 – 14. It is tempting to speculate that the phenomenon of
accretion of gas onto a massive blackhole at the galactic center3 and
the jets of material ejected from the accretion disc around a blackhole, which
expand and decay over a few days1, or the explosion of supernovae
may be analogous with the phenomenon of assimilation (the process whereby the
already digested foodstuffs are absorbed and utilized by the tissues) and
secretion of material inside living organism. The process of stellar
nucleosynthesis6, 14 may be analogous to the synthesis of
substances in the cells of organisms. These analogies existing on the two
different scale of space and time might appear unrelated initially. Although
new information on galaxies, birth and death of stars are coming in55,
there are many long-standing mysteries enveloping the universe. The advent of
new generation of astronomical instruments opens new windows for the
astronomers and may call for major revisions in the standard view of cosmology.
Neutrino ‘telescopes’ are expected to give more detailed information about
celestial objects like AGNs, massive blackholes, neutron stars and supernovae.
My proposition is that an extensive and well co-ordinated work between
different types of microscopes and telescopes could be able to reveal more
mysteries enveloping the microcosm and macrocosm and thus bridging further the
gaps between the disciplines like biology, chemistry and
astronomy/astrophysics. The practical applicability of astronomy is often
questioned in comparison to particle physics and medical sciences, but we see
that it has got a direct bearing on the modern humans spearheading the
biological evolution which is still in progress. Millions of people worldwide
are the witness of the spectacular celestial phenomenon – Total Solar Eclipse,
which also practically confirms the Einstein’s theory of general relativity
predicting deflection of light due to Sun’s large gravitating mass causing
curvature of space-time continuum in which life originated on the Earth.
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Acknowledgements:
I thank the Department of Anatomy, A.I.I.M.S., New Delhi where
the author was post doctoral fellow and did Electron Microscopic work. The
histocytological work was done both in the Department of Anatomy, A.I.I.M.S.
and P.G. Department of Zoology, Patna University supported by UGC fellowship
awarded to the author. I am thankful to my daughter, Pooja; son, Akash Amol and
wife, Sapna who always supported me in my academic and research activities.
Table – 1 : Showing
parameters of DNA molecule and their dimensions.
____________________________________________________
Parameters Dimensions
(nm)
____________________________________________________
a. Average base pair
length 1.095
b. Average hydrogen bond
length 0.292
c. Diameter of DNA double
helix 2.0
Table – 2 : Showing ratios of the mean values of Earth – Sun and
Planet – Sun distances (r/R) for exterior planets and the inverse
ratios for interior planets.
______________________________________________________
Planets
r/R ratios
Mercury 0.387
Venus
0.723
Mars 0.656
Jupiter
0.192
Saturn 0.105
Table – 3 : Showing the size of different types of Cell
(C) and Nucleus (N) and N/C ratios*
______________________________________________________________________
Cell
types Cell
size Nuclear
size N/C
ratios
(µm)
(µm)
Pancreatic 12.080 ±1.148 6.418±0.377 0.530±0.060
cell (100)
Hepatocyte
19.200±2.848 10.479±4.548
0.538±0.166
(100)
Spermatocyte
14.950±1.605 10.182±0.700 0.679±0.057
(100)
Oocyte
54.810±1.725 23.940±2.053
0.437±0.046
(5)
_______________________________________________________________________
* Data represents mean ± standard
deviation of 6 guinea pigs.
Figures in paranthesis indicate the
number of cells included in micrometric measurements.
